Critically discuss the impact of the key changes associated with industrialisation
The Industrial Revolution is arguably one of the most significant periods in British history. The social, economic and political changes which occurred during the 18th and 19th centuries transformed aspects of Britain for years to come. While debate remains about the reasons which initiated industrialisation, when it occurred, whether it benefited the workers of the period and whether it should be considered a revolution at all, it is possible to single out some changes within the period which contributed to the process and greatly changed the social and economic dynamic of the nation. It is the aim of this essay to explore inland transport and the Agricultural Revolution as two of these key changes and discuss the impact they had upon society.
Life in pre-industrial Britain was mainly rural, with little chance of travel between areas. The idea of traveling would have been considered not only in terms of sheer time and monetary cost, but also in terms of the danger undertaken in journey on a largely neglected network of roads. Since the mid 16th century, road maintenance had been under local control, often carried out by unskilled workers for no pay. However, economic pressure to improve the condition of roads increased and as a result of this new demand, changes were made to road management. The start of these changes happened in 1663 in the form of the first Turnpike Act. Over the evolution of these acts, roads were brought into control of trustees who were given the power to put up toll stations. By the 1830’s, Turnpike Acts had collective control over 22,000 miles of road, but critics point out that the trustees appointed over these roads did not always put the tolls to use in improving road conditions (May, 1996, pp 43-44). It seems that improvement of these roads was not automatic:
Whether the turnpike trusts would effect an improvement to the roads depended on their administration and upon their success or failure in attracting sound road engineers. It is difficult to generalise about the trusts. Some were notorious for the inept and sometimes fraudulent manner in which they carried out their appointed tasks. Others made a conscious effort to maintain and improve their roads as economically as possible (May, 1996, p.44).
Nevertheless, total road expenditure increased, developing the skill of new civil engineers. When these skills were finally coupled with substantial investment, some of these turnpike trusts were combined to create a substantial stretches of road (May, 1996, pp 43-45).
Although these improvements did allow for greater quantities of goods to be moved around the country, the changes still did not allow for mass transport of goods. In response to high demand for a low cost, high yield goods transport system, landowners and entrepreneurs fronted money for the creation of canals. These canals quickly became recognised for their potential, driving down costs of transport as well as goods themselves. Construction of thousands of miles of canals continued through the period of industrialisation, and while this did create employment, May points out that:
The full benefit of improvements was not passed on to the public, nor were the long-term interests of the companies themselves served. Avarice for short-term gain was short-sighted, for reinvestment in improving their service would have placed canals in a far better position to face the railways. (May, 1996, p.48)
This meant that the canal network remained disconnected and disjointed. Nevertheless, it seems that canals reached their highest volume after railways appeared. Eventually, though, this died off as railways were formed into larger management groups and efforts were made by rail companies to cut journey tolls. These efforts were not matched by canal companies, their primary concerns being that of profit rather than a national network.
Improved inland transport opened up the country to cheaper travel as well as financial endeavours. Previously unprofitable ventures became profitable due to decreased transport costs, yet greater social effects were complicated. Workers were often forced to look for new work if their area was plagued by high cost production, sometimes ending in low employment and human migration (Mathias, 1983, p.97).
Meanwhile, agriculture benefited from the new inland transport. Before this period, farming consisted mainly of subsistence farming as people in rural areas grew in small strips of land to provide for themselves and their families. Agricultural changes were traditionally credited to public figures such as Jethro Tull and Lord Townshend (Prothero, 1936), but the reality is probably far more complex. While mechanisation through inventions such as the seed drill and threshing machine would eventually prove to be important to agricultural practice, inventors often had difficulty using these inventions productively on their own farms due to poor construction and unwilling workers. While turnips did play a role in important crop rotations which reintroduced nitrogen to the soil, the ideas may have been adapted or learned from foreign travels. Overall, the credit for the application of these changes was probably exaggerated and subsequently accepted as fact by traditional historians (Overton, 2009). Selective breeding of livestock at the time helped to create animals which yielded highly in desired products. Another important aspect to consider was the choice of crops. Some crops were more successful in certain areas, and some failed under certain rotations. It was also the case that due to imports and changing demands, certain crops decreased in value rapidly, leaving farmers suffering (Mathias, 1983, p.314). Also important to note in the role of increasing agricultural yield were the Enclosure Acts, which forced subsistence farming and traditional grazing off the land, forging large fields which were in turn farmed using intensive new techniques. It is important to realise that while enclosure may have increased production and fed more people, it also created rural poor by removing farming rights. These people became dependant on the Poor Laws or often migrated to the cities to work in factories. Some historians also point out that enclosure was not widespread, as family farms were still to be seen found in many parts of the country (Mathias, 1983, p.311).
Obfuscating the historical details are the political and ideological motivations of authors of primary and secondary texts. Authors such as Defoe and Young toured the countryside during industrialisation, but often missed vast parts of the nation and were motivated by politics and money (A Vision of Britain through Time, no date). Traditional historians often worked from an incomplete set of evidence and accepted biased primary sources (Mathias, 1983, p.314). In turn, modern economic historians such as Mathias are less concerned with the social impact of historical events and face the same challenges in attaining reliable sources.
While industrialisation certainly changed Britain, its changes are complex and multifaceted. Inland transport and the Agricultural Revolution fed into one another, the demand for one increasing expenditure in another. Instead of making blanket statements about these changes, it is important to remember that poor communication made understanding the nation as a whole difficult and that vested interests would dictate views. The history is complex, one group benefiting from changes while others suffered. Inland transport and the Agricultural Revolution played a vital part in this, forging changes in Britain which are still visible today.
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Bibliography
A Vision of Britain through Time (no date). [online] Available from: http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/travellers/index.jsp (Accessed: 11 November 2009).
Mathias, P. (1983) The First Industrial Nation: The Economic History of Britain 1700-1914. 2nd edition. London and New York: Routledge.
May, T. (1996) An Economic and Social History of Britain, 1760-1990. 2nd edition. Longman.
Overton, M. (2009) BBC History – British History in depth: Agricultural Revolution in England 1500 – 1850. [online] Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/agricultural_revolution_01.shtml (Accessed: 10 November 2009).
Prothero, R.E. (1936) English Farming: Chapter VII. [online] Available from: http://www.soilandhealth.org/01aglibrary/010136ernle/010136ch7.htm (Accessed: 11 November 2009).
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