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English – Close Reading of a Passage of Hard Times

Published on May 10, 2010 in Academic and Writing. 1 Comment

Book Two, Chapter 6 – ‘Fading Away’

This passage occurs towards the middle of Book Two, Chapter Six of Dickens’ novel Hard Times. The chapter name ‘Fading Away’ can be associated with the slow, drawn out decline in the fortunes of the characters, as they become victims of the utilitarian system which pervades the plot. This imagery captures the almost cruel nature of the decline, as if it may have been better for the characters had they just fallen quickly. The passage itself falls within an important, plot heavy portion of the novel. Following Stephen Blackpool’s dismissal from Mr. Bounderby’s employ, Tom and Louisa visit his home as he finishes tea with Mrs. Pegler and Rachael. The narrative centres on Louisa as she enters Stephen’s room.
The first thing of note in this passage is the heavy use of anaphora. We see the repetition of the words ‘for the first time’ in the first sentence, and then repetition of the words ‘she knew’ following throughout the first paragraph. This choice of words is interesting, given that the juxtaposition of these two phrases raises a stark contrast. On one hand, we are told that Louisa has had no real first hand encounters with a large population of Coketown; on the other hand, she was raised in a philosophical system of fact which has given her a great amount of statistics and knowledge pertaining to the Hands’ work. This is an example of a continuing theme throughout the novel in which Dickens undermines the utilitarian philosophy by portraying the knowledge of the characters as too abstract and lacking in both real world practicality and joy.
Louisa’s education has only taught her to study life from a purely fact based scientific and mathematical approach, and this is indicated by the use of mathematical lexis. Louisa is said to have known of the existence of the Hands ‘by hundreds and thousands’ and thinks of them in terms of what results they could produce ‘in a given space of time’. This tone of study is continued in a scientific manner as the Hands are likened to ants or beetles in their movements; yet the final sentence of the first paragraph seems to admit the lack in Louisa’s depth of knowledge, stating that ‘she knew infinitely more’ about insects than about the Hands. The sentence starts with the word ‘but’ which immediately casts doubt upon all that which has previously been written. It almost seems that we may be getting access to Louisa’s own thoughts in an example of free indirect speech, and that she could be aware of this void in her education. This is an integral part of Louisa’s character, and we have seen throughout the text her awareness of a sort of loss starting as early as Book One, Chapter Eight, during which she speaks with Tom regarding her lack of knowledge in things such as other girls would have known (Dickens, 1989 p.67). When looking back upon this first section, it could be said that the use of ‘she knew’ could be intended as irony, alluding to the fact that what Louisa doesn’t know about the Hands is far more vast than the few statistics and facts she does know.
The second paragraph only contains two sentences. The first sentence is very long and is characterised again with anaphora. This time, we get the repetition of the word ‘something’ in connection with the Hands. Interspersed amongst these words we can again find the lexis of utilitarianism. Throughout this paragraph, the Hands are likened to commodities to be bought and sold, tools to be used in pursuit of monetary gain and statistics on crime, pauperism and birth rate. The pervading theme here is an inexorable, driving portrayal of these people as things rather than individual people, reinforced by the constant use of ‘something’ at the beginning of each assertion. There is also condescension here. The imagery involved in the words ‘blundered’ and ‘floundered’ in reference to the whole population evokes ideas of some innate incapability in them. The assertion that the Hands were ‘pinched’ during times of wheat shortage and ‘over-ate’ themselves when there was a wheat surplus also suggests some sort of gross lack of planning. This sort of language coupled with the association of the Hands with negative statistics and their rising like a sea to do ‘harm and waste’ in what can only be interpreted as rioting or protests seems to go beyond fact and into a sort of blanket malevolence. In this way, Dickens suggests that this system of utilitarianism has no room for those outside its ranks. While Louisa has been taught statistics on the Hands, she has also been taught to see them in a negative manner, as if all of those outside of the philosophy of fact are doing damage to the world. At the end of this paragraph just as in the previous, however, there is another example of doubt in the narrative voice. Again, this sentence starts with the word ‘but’ which casts doubt on the utilitarian view of things which came before. We are told that Louisa had never thought of separating the Hands into units, likening the idea to ‘separating the sea itself into its component drops’. This is a powerful use of imagery and it gives us insight into the sort of mind Louisa has. She has until now only seen the Hands as a vast unified mass to be used, observed, and recorded with a touch of disapproval and the idea of knowing and relating to an individual within that vast group was an entirely new concept to her.
As this passage closes, we leave the world of utilitarianism, as if waking from a dream. Louisa stands observing the two women, Stephen, and Stephen’s meagre belongings. Repetition of the word ‘few’ in reference to Stephen’s books and chairs coupled with the use of the word ‘common’ in reference to his prints finally highlights the humble humanity in this setting. Louisa is brought face to face with an individual with his own life, his own belongings and his own identity.
In closing, this passage appears to draw upon a sophisticated arsenal of literary tools in order to reinforce Dickens’ theme of the innate lack in the philosophy of utilitarianism. By revisiting the lexis of Louisa’s education while introducing small, cleverly placed doses of doubt in the narrative and using setting as a reflection of humanity, Dickens unravels Louisa’s sheltered world and throws her into the real one. This theft of her once solid ideology prepares the reader for events still to come.

1094 words

Bibliography

Dickens, C. (1989) Hard Times (Oxford World’s Classics). New York: Oxford University Press.

Forster, E.M. (1976) Aspects of the Novel (Penguin Classics). London: Penguin Books.

Lodge, D. (1992) The Art of Fiction: Illustrated from Classic and Modern Texts. London: Penguin Books.

May, T. (1996) An Economic and Social History of Britain, 1760-1990. 2nd edition. Longman.

McEwan, N. (2000) “Hard Times” (York Notes Advanced). 2nd edition. Longman.

The Victorian Web (no date). [online] Available from: http://www.victorianweb.org/ (Accessed: 9 November 2009).

History – The Key Changes of The Industrial Revolution of Great Britain

Published on May 10, 2010 in Academic and Writing. 0 Comments

Critically discuss the impact of the key changes associated with industrialisation

The Industrial Revolution is arguably one of the most significant periods in British history. The social, economic and political changes which occurred during the 18th and 19th centuries transformed aspects of Britain for years to come. While debate remains about the reasons which initiated industrialisation, when it occurred, whether it benefited the workers of the period and whether it should be considered a revolution at all, it is possible to single out some changes within the period which contributed to the process and greatly changed the social and economic dynamic of the nation. It is the aim of this essay to explore inland transport and the Agricultural Revolution as two of these key changes and discuss the impact they had upon society.
Life in pre-industrial Britain was mainly rural, with little chance of travel between areas. The idea of traveling would have been considered not only in terms of sheer time and monetary cost, but also in terms of the danger undertaken in journey on a largely neglected network of roads. Since the mid 16th century, road maintenance had been under local control, often carried out by unskilled workers for no pay. However, economic pressure to improve the condition of roads increased and as a result of this new demand, changes were made to road management. The start of these changes happened in 1663 in the form of the first Turnpike Act. Over the evolution of these acts, roads were brought into control of trustees who were given the power to put up toll stations. By the 1830’s, Turnpike Acts had collective control over 22,000 miles of road, but critics point out that the trustees appointed over these roads did not always put the tolls to use in improving road conditions (May, 1996, pp 43-44). It seems that improvement of these roads was not automatic:

Whether the turnpike trusts would effect an improvement to the roads depended on their administration and upon their success or failure in attracting sound road engineers. It is difficult to generalise about the trusts. Some were notorious for the inept and sometimes fraudulent manner in which they carried out their appointed tasks. Others made a conscious effort to maintain and improve their roads as economically as possible (May, 1996, p.44).

Nevertheless, total road expenditure increased, developing the skill of new civil engineers. When these skills were finally coupled with substantial investment, some of these turnpike trusts were combined to create a substantial stretches of road (May, 1996, pp 43-45).
Although these improvements did allow for greater quantities of goods to be moved around the country, the changes still did not allow for mass transport of goods. In response to high demand for a low cost, high yield goods transport system, landowners and entrepreneurs fronted money for the creation of canals. These canals quickly became recognised for their potential, driving down costs of transport as well as goods themselves. Construction of thousands of miles of canals continued through the period of industrialisation, and while this did create employment, May points out that:

The full benefit of improvements was not passed on to the public, nor were the long-term interests of the companies themselves served. Avarice for short-term gain was short-sighted, for reinvestment in improving their service would have placed canals in a far better position to face the railways. (May, 1996, p.48)

This meant that the canal network remained disconnected and disjointed. Nevertheless, it seems that canals reached their highest volume after railways appeared. Eventually, though, this died off as railways were formed into larger management groups and efforts were made by rail companies to cut journey tolls. These efforts were not matched by canal companies, their primary concerns being that of profit rather than a national network.
Improved inland transport opened up the country to cheaper travel as well as financial endeavours. Previously unprofitable ventures became profitable due to decreased transport costs, yet greater social effects were complicated. Workers were often forced to look for new work if their area was plagued by high cost production, sometimes ending in low employment and human migration (Mathias, 1983, p.97).
Meanwhile, agriculture benefited from the new inland transport. Before this period, farming consisted mainly of subsistence farming as people in rural areas grew in small strips of land to provide for themselves and their families. Agricultural changes were traditionally credited to public figures such as Jethro Tull and Lord Townshend (Prothero, 1936), but the reality is probably far more complex. While mechanisation through inventions such as the seed drill and threshing machine would eventually prove to be important to agricultural practice, inventors often had difficulty using these inventions productively on their own farms due to poor construction and unwilling workers. While turnips did play a role in important crop rotations which reintroduced nitrogen to the soil, the ideas may have been adapted or learned from foreign travels. Overall, the credit for the application of these changes was probably exaggerated and subsequently accepted as fact by traditional historians (Overton, 2009). Selective breeding of livestock at the time helped to create animals which yielded highly in desired products. Another important aspect to consider was the choice of crops. Some crops were more successful in certain areas, and some failed under certain rotations. It was also the case that due to imports and changing demands, certain crops decreased in value rapidly, leaving farmers suffering (Mathias, 1983, p.314). Also important to note in the role of increasing agricultural yield were the Enclosure Acts, which forced subsistence farming and traditional grazing off the land, forging large fields which were in turn farmed using intensive new techniques. It is important to realise that while enclosure may have increased production and fed more people, it also created rural poor by removing farming rights. These people became dependant on the Poor Laws or often migrated to the cities to work in factories. Some historians also point out that enclosure was not widespread, as family farms were still to be seen found in many parts of the country (Mathias, 1983, p.311).
Obfuscating the historical details are the political and ideological motivations of authors of primary and secondary texts. Authors such as Defoe and Young toured the countryside during industrialisation, but often missed vast parts of the nation and were motivated by politics and money (A Vision of Britain through Time, no date). Traditional historians often worked from an incomplete set of evidence and accepted biased primary sources (Mathias, 1983, p.314). In turn, modern economic historians such as Mathias are less concerned with the social impact of historical events and face the same challenges in attaining reliable sources.
While industrialisation certainly changed Britain, its changes are complex and multifaceted. Inland transport and the Agricultural Revolution fed into one another, the demand for one increasing expenditure in another. Instead of making blanket statements about these changes, it is important to remember that poor communication made understanding the nation as a whole difficult and that vested interests would dictate views. The history is complex, one group benefiting from changes while others suffered. Inland transport and the Agricultural Revolution played a vital part in this, forging changes in Britain which are still visible today.

1070 words

Bibliography

A Vision of Britain through Time (no date). [online] Available from: http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/travellers/index.jsp (Accessed: 11 November 2009).

Mathias, P. (1983) The First Industrial Nation: The Economic History of Britain 1700-1914. 2nd edition. London and New York: Routledge.

May, T. (1996) An Economic and Social History of Britain, 1760-1990. 2nd edition. Longman.

Overton, M. (2009) BBC History – British History in depth: Agricultural Revolution in England 1500 – 1850. [online] Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/agricultural_revolution_01.shtml (Accessed: 10 November 2009).

Prothero, R.E. (1936) English Farming: Chapter VII. [online] Available from: http://www.soilandhealth.org/01aglibrary/010136ernle/010136ch7.htm (Accessed: 11 November 2009).

The Night Watchman

Published on May 6, 2009 in Writing. 0 Comments Tags: , , , , , .

Frozen by the shining sun, my mind is set alight by her long breaths. Liquidity. My transformation is complete as full dark slips over the world. I stare at her face, so peaceful in its repose. The ache of my love is so strong now that I fear it will wake her. My mind races across our life together, finding pain. I immerse myself in it so that it can’t defile her.

I am the night watchman.

I guard the innocent light of the day, battling darkness so that the sleeper can rest without worry. Silently waiting for the next wave of foes, I direct my gaze to the window and wait for the birds to sing.

Explanation

Published on May 2, 2009 in Books, Nonsense and Writing. 1 Comment Tags: , , , , .

“Why do people have to be this lonely? What’s the point of it all? Millions of people in this world, all of them yearning, looking to others to satisfy them, yet isolating themselves. Why? Was the Earth put here just to nourish human loneliness?
I turned face-up on the slab of stone, gazed at the sky, and thought about all of the man-made satellites spinning around the Earth. The horizon was still etched in a faint glow, and stars began to blink on in the deep, wine-coloured sky. I gazed among them for the light of a satellite, but it was still too bright out to spot one with the naked eye. The sprinkling of stars looked nailed to the spot, unmoving. I closed my eyes and listened carefully for the descendants of Sputnik, even now circling the Earth, gravity their only tie to the planet. Lonely metal souls in the unimpeded darkness of space, they meet, pass each other, and part, never to meet again. No words passing between them. No promises to keep.” (Sputnik Sweetheart by Haruki Murakami, translated by Philip Gabriel)

I live in phases. Up and down I go, from periods of great productivity, joy and vigor to periods of something else altogether. Like Murakami’s strange Sumire who was so cherished by the story’s narrator, I too use writing as a means to think. Just as she did, I go through low phases which find me unable (or more likely unwilling) to think and therefore I avoid the act of writing. I recede from the internet, from books and from anything which may challenge me to think only to come crashing back later, like the returning tide. I don’t know how to prevent these cycles other than to force myself to continue to read, write and engage with my thoughts. I don’t even know if that will work, because my dark days come in force and unexpectedly, gripping me with an unwillingness to engage with the world. I prefer instead to dull my mind and dwell in nothingness until drawn out. Perhaps I need to make a stand or a decision, like in the book. I have love and companionship, but maybe I need a narrator of my own to draw me back from the twin world.

I’m back, for now.

The Dream

Published on February 11, 2009 in Poetry and Writing. 2 Comments Tags: , , , , , , , , , , , , , .

I’m running as quickly as I can, my bare feet flashing out in front of me and slapping the hard white sand. As I run, I notice the vast emptiness of this place and it terrifies me. How am I to get to safety? Where can I go? I notice a black curved line in the distance and change direction, surging toward it as fast as my small body can take me. He is still behind me. I don’t see him so much as I get a sense of him back there, his presence a taint on my very being. A flash of his face overwhelms me with fear and I try to run faster. It’s like a camel’s face, but blood red and with dripping yellow fangs. His ears are longer than a camel’s, and he suddenly calls in some way, raising his head briefly to the sky. What does that mean? Are others coming? He’s too fast. I come to the black line and see that it is a road. No. It isn’t a road, it is a frozen black river in the middle of this desert. I get the sense that he can’t cross this. If I cross I’ll be safe. I leap almost recklessly down the bank and skid across the ice toward the safety of the other side. My left foot thumps onto the soft sand along the far bank. Just as it lands, he’s there looming over my right shoulder, his fangs sinking into my flesh. My voice joins his as we scream to the sky.

I wake up panting. I’m terrified and I want my mother, so I get out of bed and venture into the darkness. The big circular rug is there in the next room and I lay down on it, gathering the nerve to enter my parents’ bedroom. Will they be angry with me for waking them? I play with one of the orange tassels on the rug then get up, walking into their room. There is no darkness greater or deeper than the darkness of their room as they sleep. I lose my nerve. I find my way to their closet and climb inside, losing myself in the safety of the confined space and the scent of shoes. I drift off to sleep, safe from the creature.

two in the morning –
a nightmare beast comes calling
in a young boy’s dream